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CHAPTER 3 Funding, workload and teacher supply 22. The Secretary of State's remit letter asked us to have regard to various considerations when making our recommendations. These included the need to:
With regard to workload, we would add the need to ease workload pressures generally on heads and their staff at all levels. 23. Chapter 2 highlights the challenges faced by schools in implementing and making effective use of the new pay and career structures introduced from last September, emphasising the need for adequate funding. This chapter discusses the Government's plans for school funding in 2001-02 and beyond, and the interrelated issues of workload, recruitment and retention. All have links with motivation and morale. 24. Concern about teacher motivation and morale continues to be a major theme in the evidence we receive, despite the improvements promised in funding and in pay and career prospects. Our visits to schools confirm that many teachers still feel under great pressure and the object of excessive criticism. They remain very positive about their key task of teaching but far less so about the profession, a perception which adversely affects initial recruitment and the possible return of those who have left teaching, and contributes to the reluctance of many teachers to seek promotion. This must continue to be addressed in a range of ways, including better funding and some easing of workloads, to make the profession more attractive and rewarding. The newly established General Teaching Councils, for England and for Wales, also have a key role to play in raising the status of the profession and working to build up morale.
25. The main source of school funding continues to be from local authorities supported substantially by revenue support grant from central government, based on its standard spending assessments (SSAs) of the level of spending needed in each authority to provide a standard level of service. SSAs take account of pupil numbers. They also take account of such local factors as differences in the age profile of pupils, socio-economic circumstances and area costs. However, actual spending by LEAs remains a matter for each local authority's discretion in the light of its own assessment of the needs of its schools and spending decisions on other services. 26. We have repeatedly drawn attention to criticism of the existing SSA-based funding system. This is because increases announced centrally do not always reach schools, and because of variations in funding per pupil from one part of the country to another for some of which no obvious rationale is seen. We noted a year ago that the existing arrangements were under review and urged that a simpler and more transparent funding system for schools should be a key aim of any change. A Green Paper has now been published setting out a range of options for debate. We welcome the Government's objective of arrangements which will be fair between different parts of the country; will be more transparent; and will provide greater predictability and stability. We note that it wants to remove the worst of the disparities that exist across the country by levelling up, not down. This must be progressed quickly. 27. Meanwhile, the Government has announced that SSAs in aggregate for LEAs in England as a whole will rise by 4.8 per cent, or just over £1 billion, in 2001-02. This is designed to take account of known cost pressures on LEAs including:
The DfEE and the National Employers have said that the effect of these pressures will limit the headroom available to fund a pay increase. Also relevant to the position of individual LEAs and their schools is the range of increases in SSAs for the coming year, averaging from 5.2 per cent and 6.4 per cent respectively in inner and outer London to 3.5 per cent across the other metropolitan authorities, reflecting particular circumstances including changes in pupil numbers. 28. The extent to which increases in SSAs are passed through to schools has continued to be an issue. We have previously drawn attention to the extent to which LEAs as a whole have sustained actual expenditure levels on education in excess of aggregate SSAs - as shown in Table 1 - often at the expense of other services or by drawing on their reserves. In recent years local authorities have reduced this "overspend" on education and as many as a third of LEAs are now spending less than their SSA. This has meant that the money actually reaching some schools has not increased to the full extent of the significant increases announced in central government funding. Table 1: Comparison between SSAs and actual expenditure in aggregate and at LEA level in England, 1994-95 to 2000-01
Source: DETR (RA returns) (a) The differences between successive levels
of aggregate SSAs and budgeted expenditure shown in the table do not
provide a completely accurate picture from year to year because of changes
in function: in 1997-98 some £530 million was removed from aggregate
SSAs to pay for nursery vouchers which was also reflected in actual
expenditure, but this change was reversed in 1998-99. 29. The National Employers have welcomed the increase in SSAs for the coming year and the further substantial increases which are planned for the following two years. We hope that these increases will be passed through to schools. 30. The Government is also improving funding through a range of grants payable direct to schools in England. A general grant was first made available to schools in May 2000 at a total cost of £290 million. A further such general grant, of £545 million in total equating to an extra 2.4 per cent on SSAs, will be paid in 2001-02. Based on pupil numbers, typical primary schools will get £20,000 and secondary schools £60,000. This funding will continue for the following two years, uprated for inflation. The security this provides could in particular make it feasible for schools to take on some additional teaching or non-teaching staff to help ease workload pressures. 31. In addition to this general grant, the DfEE has introduced the following range of special grants for schools in England to support the use of the new pay flexibilities:
The DfEE has said that more special funding will be made available in future years to support the new pay reforms, including the award of further points on the new upper pay scale for classroom teachers (covered in Chapter 4). 32. There is also to be a substantial increase in standards fund grants for schools in England for particular educational initiatives. Aside from some provision for capital expenditure, funding including the contribution required from LEAs will be £2.3 billion in 2001-02 compared to £1.7 billion in 2000-01. Simplification of the funding arrangements will mean that almost all allocations will be by formula rather than bidding. Schools will also have greater freedom to determine spending priorities. 33. A similar total increase in funding is being made available in Wales, although provision for pay improvements covered by special grants in England is included in what is expected to be covered by general local government funding. This was of concern to a number of our consultees and is an example of differences of approach between England and Wales which could have a bearing on the implementation of the new pay structures. 34. The overall picture - allowing for the shortcomings of the existing SSA-based funding system and the particular issues arising in Wales - is one of an improving financial position for schools, although the different ways in which money is being channelled to them are adding to the complexity of the funding system. While there will always be limits on school funding, requiring decisions on the ordering of priorities, it is crucial that schools feel able to allocate the money needed for staffing and pay purposes if the pay and career structure reforms are to play their part in raising educational standards. If SSA increases are passed through to schools, and if they make effective use of this and the other funding available to them, they should in general be in a better position than in recent years to implement pay and staffing improvements.
35. Improvements in funding enable schools to recruit extra teaching and other staff, although the extent to which this helps to spread and ease the burden on teachers depends on changes in pupil numbers and on other factors affecting workload discussed later in this chapter. The overall position in January 2000 compared to three and six years previously is shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Staffing and pupil numbers in primary and secondary schools in January each year in 2000 compared with 1997 and 1994
Source: DfEE (a) Pupil teacher ratios are based on the number
of qualified teachers in schools and the number of pupils on schools'
registers on the census date. 36. Teacher numbers in primary schools in England and Wales have grown by the full-time equivalent of 6,000 teachers since 1994. Two-thirds of this increase has occurred since 1997 when pupil numbers peaked and began to fall. The figures for England show that the pupil teacher ratio and average class sizes have moved accordingly. The numbers of education support staff have also grown substantially - rising by the full-time equivalent of nearly 28,000 in England over the six year period. Additionally, there has been an increase in administrative and clerical support staff. 37. The secondary sector has also seen an increase in teacher numbers in England and Wales - the full-time equivalent of an extra 5,000 teachers since 1997. However, pupil numbers have also continued to grow to an extent that has resulted in a rise in the pupil teacher ratio and average class sizes, as indicated in the figures for England. The figures for England also show that education and other support staff numbers have grown in this sector. However, pupil numbers are set to rise over the next four years, putting further pressure on staffing resources in secondary schools.
38. Teachers' workloads continue to be a major source of concern to all consultees, reflecting the tightening of the staffing position in secondary schools and despite the relative improvement in the position in primary schools. The NASUWT and the NUT have been pursuing union action in schools to restrict the demands on teachers which they report has had some success, for example in better prepared and more efficiently conducted staff meetings. They have also continued to press for new statutory limits aimed at easing workload pressures; the ATL has asked us to set specific targets for reducing teachers' hours over the next few years; and the PAT has repeated its call for classroom teachers to have 20 per cent of the taught week free from teaching in order to perform other necessary work place duties. 39. Concern about workloads was underlined by the results of our latest diary-based workload survey which was conducted in a term-time week in March 2000. Key findings were:
40. Average total hours worked did however vary, both between individual teachers in a school and between schools. Those worked in about a third of schools were within two hours of the average, but overall they ranged broadly from 46 hours to 60 hours. Primary schools were over-represented in the group of schools at the top of the range of hours worked. In other respects the mix of schools in this group was similar to that of the sample as a whole - no link was found, for example, with social deprivation in terms of a high proportion of pupils eligible for free school meals. 41. Teachers are, of course, not alone in working relatively long hours. A study commissioned by the DfEE in order to provide baseline information for the Government's Work-Life Balance campaign, published in November 2000, found that almost a third of staff worked over 49 hours a week, with managers and professionals putting in the most extra time, usually for no additional pay. However, that is not to say that the hours worked by teachers are acceptable, especially in view of the demands and pressures experienced when teaching pupils for much of the school day. 42. The easing of workload pressures continues to be a priority, despite efforts at all levels to reduce administrative tasks and paperwork. Workloads and their implications for lifestyle are clearly an important adverse influence on morale, and on recruitment and retention. They always feature prominently in our discussions with the heads and other teachers we meet on our visits to schools, confirming the concern expressed in the submissions we receive formally from consultees. 43. Most teachers believe that the volume of educational initiatives - generally regarded as valuable in themselves - is beyond the level with which schools can cope. The related administration, planning and monitoring is reported to be growing in volume, frequency and degree of detail. It is also clear, as brought out in the study by British Market Research Bureau International which complemented our workload survey, that there is a need to develop skills such as time planning and the management of meetings. The relative importance of these and other factors is difficult to quantify, although our survey and study suggest that individual teachers and schools vary widely in their ability to exercise some control over the hours they work, with no particular correlation with size, type, location or socio-economic environment. 44. We believe that, in addition to the provision of adequate funding, the way forward lies in a combination of: continued efforts to contain the flow of initiatives; a rigorous re-examination of all the written planning, monitoring and reporting that goes on in schools to eliminate what is not essential; and an urgent programme of training in time management techniques and work simplification. Accordingly, we continue to resist limits on hours or such matters as contact time which would be difficult and cumbersome to administer, would not go to the core of the problem, and would not enhance the professional status of teaching. Instead, vigorous action is needed to identify and tackle the issues involved. 45. A number of valuable initiatives are in progress. The report by the Government's Better Regulation Task Force, Red Tape Affecting Head Teachers, of April 2000 and the subsequent action plan are generally regarded as a positive basis for tackling the workload burdens of heads. The DfEE/Cabinet Office report, Making a Difference: Reducing School Paperwork, of December 2000 should lead to a further streamlining and reduction of the demands on schools. In Wales, a project began in autumn 2000 that aims to put in place sustainable measures for minimising bureaucratic burdens in schools. Recommendations and an action plan for the future will be presented to the Assembly in the summer. However, we believe there is now a need to examine the totality of pressures from all sources on a range of typical classroom teachers. We therefore propose that there should be a detailed and independently run programme to focus on a sample of schools - probably no more than 30 initially - in varying circumstances to:
The findings of the initial phase would point to directions for further work and in some cases act as a change agent where local efforts to progress may have lost momentum. The DfEE would need to take the lead in organising such a programme, building on initiatives taken so far. Other interested parties would have an important role to play, as well as consultants with professional expertise in time management and work simplification.
46. We further suggest that Ofsted and Estyn in their inspection procedures should report on the extent to which workload and its management affects the quality and standards of work being achieved in schools.
Recruitment and 47. Consultees have reported sharply increased concerns about the recruitment position for schools over the last year. Many examples were given, relating not just to the traditional secondary shortage subjects but also to subjects such as English; extending widely across the secondary, primary and special school sectors; and reaching parts of the country not normally associated with such problems. There have also been well-publicised instances of schools with acute staff shortages. 48. Despite the very real problems which exist, there are positive aspects to note. Schools have been successful over recent years in recruiting more teachers - as discussed earlier in this chapter - and the numbers leaving education other than to retire have remained low at around 3 per cent annually of all teachers. The number of unfilled vacancies, as reported in the DfEE's annual return, has also remained relatively small. In January 2000 there were some 2,700 unfilled vacancies recorded in primary and secondary schools in England and Wales, an overall rate of only 0.7 per cent, although rates were higher for certain secondary subjects, in particular areas such as London, and for special schools. However, these vacancy figures have well known limitations. They only cover advertised full-time posts that were either vacant or being covered for less than a term on a temporary basis in January; and they take no account of the strategies that schools adopt, as noted below, to meet their teaching commitments - disguising the extent of underlying recruitment problems. We do not yet have the DfEE's vacancy figures for January 2001 relating to the recent period of widely reported difficulties. Coping strategies 49. We commissioned Whitmuir Management Consultants and Industrial Relations Services Research last year to examine the recruitment and retention problems schools face and the ways they tackle them. Whitmuir undertook a preliminary desk-based study of existing research. A second stage was undertaken by IRS Research based on case studies of 24 schools in 12 LEAs, with 12 of the schools in 6 of the London LEAs. The aim was to explore the schools' recent experience of trying to fill vacancies and the impact of what happened on such matters as the quality of teaching, pupil behaviour and school performance. 50. The case studies highlighted a range of coping strategies used by schools to cover vacant posts - arrangements which were less satisfactory than they would wish. These included not only the use of supply teachers and, particularly in London, temporary teachers from overseas, but also measures such as cutting back on non-contact time in the school, spreading the teaching commitment across other staff not necessarily qualified to teach the subject involved, or reducing the scope of the curriculum being taught. These coping strategies are frequently unsatisfactory and at worst can undermine efforts to raise educational standards. In particular, greater reliance on a succession of supply teachers - giving rise to problems of maintaining teaching continuity - was identified as generally having a negative impact on the behaviour and performance of pupils. It also increased the workload of the permanent staff. These findings were supported and supplemented by Ofsted from inspection evidence and by a research study Coping with Teacher Shortages, and its companion Talking Heads, undertaken for the NUT. London and elsewhere 51. In the London schools in our study, both the number of vacancies arising and the length of time they remained vacant were more of a problem than in other areas, with some posts remaining unfilled for many months at a time. As expected, secondary schools in London and elsewhere had the most problems with the traditional shortage subjects of mathematics, science and modern foreign languages, but English was also beginning to pose difficulties. For primary schools, posts at more senior levels including those for subject co-ordinators were most commonly cited as hard to fill. Retention was not generally regarded as a problem, except for some of the schools in London. 52. The DfEE has made it clear to LEAs that it would like to see more of them developing with their schools co-ordinated strategies for tackling recruitment difficulties and in particular for dealing with shortages which threaten the ability of schools to provide a full week for their pupils. A key role was envisaged for the increasing number of LEA-based TTA recruitment strategy managers, and the Department has additionally established a special unit to monitor and assist with local problems across the country. 53. Specific steps are being taken to tackle teacher supply problems in London schools. In August 2000 the Secretary of State announced a £4 million package of measures to boost teacher recruitment in the capital. These included funding to double the number of graduate teacher programme trainees in London schools to 360 a year in each of the next four years. New refresher courses will also be promoted to help qualified teachers re-enter the profession. 54. The falling proportion of school recruitment across the country represented by returners to full-time teaching, which now accounts for some 39 per cent of the total compared with 50 per cent in 1992, is of continuing concern. To help attract back those who have left teaching, for various reasons including child care, greater use might be made of part-time appointments, job share arrangements and related strategies - there are only some 69,000 part-time teachers in schools in England and Wales making up 7.6 per cent of the full-time equivalent teaching force. The pool of qualified teachers who are not currently in teaching is considerable - estimated to be up to half a million. While many may not be potential returners, a small increase in the proportion that return could have a significant impact on the position in schools. Housing and travel costs, particularly in London 55. The study by IRS confirmed that housing and travel costs are a major factor in the particular problems London schools have in recruiting and retaining teachers. A number of London LEAs have schemes which offer some help with housing and relocation costs. Such schemes should be more widely available in London and other high-cost housing areas. We welcome the Government's Starter Home Initiative to help key workers in London and elsewhere, including teachers through their LEAs, with the cost of accommodation. More could also be done locally to help teachers with their daily travel costs. 56. All of the teacher unions in a joint submission have called on us to review the level of London allowances. Chief Education Officers collectively in London told us this had their support; and the National Employers have made a particular proposal for raising the level of the allowances - we address this issue, in the context of pay levels generally, in Chapter 5. However, we also want to see full use made of the discretionary recruitment and retention allowances available under the new pay structure, which have an important part to play in tackling obstacles to recruitment in particular schools or areas. Recruitment of heads and deputies 57. Good quality heads and deputy heads are particularly crucial to improving standards in schools. Vacancy rates for heads and deputies remain at a higher level than for classroom teachers. The highest rate at January 2000 of 1.3 per cent was for deputy head posts in primary schools. According to the latest survey by Education Data Surveys, relating to last year, over one in five of all vacancies for primary head and deputy headships were re-advertised, and a smaller proportion of secondary posts were also re-advertised. Schools in London received on average fewer applications for posts at this level than elsewhere in the country and had more difficulty in filling them. 58. Attracting good primary teachers into deputy head posts, which are also the training ground for filling the 20,000 or so headship posts in that sector, continues to be of particular concern. The responsibilities of school management, which are typically in addition to a near full-time classroom role for deputies, probably deter many candidates - more non-contact time would help. We will keep the scope to make such moves financially worthwhile under close review as the rewards for the best classroom teachers increase.
Recruitment into initial teacher training 59. Our conclusion in successive reports has been that, in an increasingly competitive job market, good quality graduates have not been entering teaching in sufficient numbers to meet future demands. This has been most obvious in the secondary sector for key shortage subjects. The initial evidence on the impact of "golden hellos" introduced last year for graduates entering training to teach mathematics and science was encouraging, although recruitment was still some way short of the targets. Similar incentives have now been extended to modern foreign languages, technology and Welsh, and trainee salaries and grants have been introduced - the new financial incentives for trainees and new entrants are described in Figure 3. These are major inducements which we hope will, together with improved pay and career prospects, do much to help address the recruitment needs of the profession. Figure 3: New financial incentives for trainees and new entrants
60. Recruitment to ITT courses in England and Wales over the last three years compared with ten years earlier is shown in Table 3. Over the last decade the intake to primary ITT courses has risen slightly from 14,330 in 1990 to 14,420 in 2000, and has always met annual targets and in many cases exceeded them. The picture is very different for secondary ITT courses. The actual intake has increased from 9,460 in 1990 to 15,690 in 2000, but since 1993 it has been consistently and significantly below target. The extent to which intakes have fallen short varies considerably by subject, with greater difficulty experienced for the shortage subjects of mathematics, modern foreign languages and technology. The scale of the training targets - which have been increased further for the secondary sector for the coming year - is challenging, particularly for the shortage subjects. Most notably, the secondary mathematics PGCE intake target for 2001/02 is almost half the number of those likely to graduate in that subject in 2001.
Table 3: Recruitment to initial teacher training courses in 2000/01 compared with the previous two years and 1990/91 in England and Wales
Source: DfEE (a) Disaggregation by secondary subject is shown in Table 20 of Appendix G. 61. The latest figures show a welcome increase in postgraduate ITT intakes to secondary courses which started in autumn 2000. However, while a step in the right direction, the increase varied by subject and was partly offset by a decline in undergraduate ITT intakes. Much more needs to be achieved to meet the number of new teachers that will be required over the next five to ten years in response to the increase in the number of secondary pupils and, for both the secondary and primary sectors, to replace the substantial number of teachers who will be reaching retirement age. There is also a continuing need to attract more men into the profession, particularly for the primary sector where their numbers are very low. 62. The increases seen so far in ITT intakes are a positive development and suggest that trainee salaries and "golden hellos" are helping to enable teaching to retain the very large share required of the market for new graduates. It will be important to ensure that as many as possible who are attracted by them into teacher training go on to start teaching in schools and remain in the profession. 63. While the main focus of recruitment into initial teacher training will continue to be through the traditional training institution route, we support the greater use which is being made of a school-based route. Young people, especially the more able, increasingly make career changes in their 20s or 30s. It will be important for teaching to attract its full share of this movement and to provide appropriate entry routes. The numbers entering through the school-based graduate teacher programme have grown but remain low. We welcome the Government's increased financial support for schools who train such recruits and we envisage an expanding role for the scheme. 64. Teaching is a major employer of graduates. Teacher shortages are not new and to some extent have always been cyclical. However, the continuing buoyant market for able graduates, the widening range of opportunities available to them, and the demanding, although worthwhile, nature of teaching pose a major challenge for teacher recruitment for the foreseeable future. All of the measures being taken will need close monitoring over the next few years within the context of accurate manpower forecasting and planning.
65. Motivation and morale, funding, workload, recruitment and retention are all linked. The overall financial picture is one of an improving position for schools. If SSA increases are passed through to them, and if they make effective use of this and other funding, they should in general be in a better position than in recent years to implement pay and staffing improvements. Staffing levels have been improving in absolute terms but workload pressures continue to be an issue and must be addressed further in ways which tackle the underlying factors involved. Sharply increased concerns have been reported over the recruitment position for schools; to cover vacant posts they have to resort to coping strategies resulting in arrangements which are less satisfactory than they would wish. The staffing problems of many London schools, frequently related to high housing costs, are of particular concern. The new financial incentives to attract entrants into initial teacher training are having some impact but much remains to be achieved to meet future needs, particularly for the secondary shortage subjects. The new pay and career structures have a vital role to play - we discuss these further in the next chapter
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